Lost Generation Essays - English-language Films, The Sun Also Rises

Lost Generation Lost Generation Ernest Hemingway is a renowned American author of the Twentieth century who centers his novels around personal experiences and affections. He is one of the authors named "The Lost Generation." He could not cope with post-war America, and therefore he introduced a new type of character in writing called the "code hero". Hemingway is known to focus his novels around code heroes who struggle with the mixture of their tragic faults and the surrounding environment. Traits of a typical Hemingway Code Hero are a love of good times, stimulating surroundings, and strict moral rules, including honesty. The Code Hero always exhibits some form of a physical wound that serves as his tragic flaw and the weakness of his character. In Ernest Hemingway's The Sun Also Rises Jake Barnes is the character who maintains the typical Code Hero qualities; while Robert Cohn provides the antithesis of a Code Hero. Jake Barnes, the narrator and main character of The Sun Also Rises, is left impotent by an ambiguous accident during World War I. Jake's wound is the first of many code hero traits that he features. This physical wound, however, transcends into an emotional one by preventing Jake from ever consummating his love with Lady Brett Ashley. Emotional suffering can take its toll on the Code Hero as it did with Jake Barnes. Despite the deep love between Jake and Lady Brett, Jake is forced to keep the relationship strictly platonic and stand watch as different men float in and out of Lady Ashley's life and bed. No one other than Jake and Brett themselves ever learn the complexity of their relationship because Jake's hopeless love for Brett and the agony it entails are restricted to scenes known to themselves alone. Therefore, Jake suffers in silence because he has learned to trust and rely only upon himself, which is conducive to the Hemingway Code as well. Jake is an American who travels to Europe to satiate his appetite for exotic landscapes and to escape his pain. Jake tries to live his life to the fullest with drinking, partying, and sporting with friends. With these pastimes, Jake hopes to hide from his fault and get on with the life he has been made to suffer. Watching and participating in sports help accentuate the Code Hero's masculinity and provide the sense of pride Jake has lost. This gain of pride is essential in the Hemingway Code. Jake attends fishing trips with friends, he visits Pamplona, Spain to witness the running of the bulls, and he acts as a mediator between arguing friends. These characteristics reveal his strong character built of courage and grace. Jake, as with any Code Hero, is a man of action who spends more time achieving goals than talking about them. Jake's friend, Robert Cohn violates everything a Hemingway Code Hero represents. He is rich, gifted, and skillful and is ready to discuss his emotions in detail. Robert refuses to admit defeat when Brett rejects him repeatedly. Unlike Jake, when Cohn is hurt, he insists on complaining to everyone instead of suffering in silence. Cohn does nothing to assert his masculinity, either. He allows people, especially women to ridicule him and knock down his self esteem. Cohn obviously can not stand up for himself and does not take action when he should. Consequently, Robert has no self control. When a matador sleeps with Brett, whom Cohn is in love with, he takes out his jealousy by beating him repeatedly. Although a man of action, Jake, the quintessential Hemingway Hero, knows when to control himself, Robert Cohn does not. On the whole, Jake Barnes strictly adheres to the qualities of the typical Hemingway Code Hero. He relies solely on himself, utilizes his assets, enjoys bullfights and other honorable activities. He is an individual of action and speaks not of what he believes; rather he just does what he believes to be right subtlety without any fanfare. Jake has lived with disappointment and frustration all his life, yet he overcomes it and uses the lesson to his advantage. On the other hand, Robert Cohn, who has had the easy life is the perpetual loser. He allows people to walk all over him and continually feels sorry for himself. Robert Cohn is the false knight, who, in theory should be the victorious protagonist but will always turn out to be a shallow person who lives on the fringes of life. In the end, the person who does not possess the Code Hero qualities can never discover himself, and therefore never truly be happy.

Christian Leadership Principles Essays

Christian Leadership Principles Essays Christian Leadership Principles Paper Christian Leadership Principles Paper Throughout history, there have been many exemplary leaders such as Martin Luther King, Jar. , George Washington and Abraham Lincoln. These men are Just a few in a long list of people that provide us with a basis of what a great leader should look like. These men are adept at public speaking. They know how to Inspire their audience and spur them on to create a better world for themselves and others. They show us what it is to have courage, faith and to reach for the impossible. While we hear so much about men like these, there is one man who we may tend to forget. This man was the leader of all leaders. This man was Jesus Christ. A leader is defined by Webster Dictionary as a guide or a directing head or chief. Throughout this study there will be many examples of Jesus strong leadership skills. We will see how we need to, as Christians, follow Jesus example of leading people with love, encouragement, forbearance, strength, understanding, motivation and a steady, guiding hand. These will be skills that you can use in the modern world today to guide people within your church, home, business or any other yep of organization. All great leaders should have a vision statement. Creating a vision statement means setting goals of where you want your organization to be In the future. This helps to keep your people focused and motivated. You can think of your vision as the big picture. Keep in mind that you need to use the Christian examples of leadership styles as shown to us by Jesus in the following text. Lets take a look at Jesus vision statement for His people. My prayer is not for them alone. I pray also for those who will believe in me through their message, that all of them may be one, Father, Just as you are in me and I am In you. May teeny also De In us so Tanat ten world may Delve Tanat you nave sent me. I have given them the glory that you gave me, that they may be one as we are one: I in them and you in me. May they be brought to complete unity to let t he world know that you have sent me and have loved them even as you have loved me. Cohn 17:20-23) The above passage is Jesus vision statement for his people. As you can see, Jesus believed that unity among one another is very important. Jesus wanted more for his people than Just organizational unity; Jesus wanted spiritual unity as well. Promoting sense of unity is an integral part of building a team atmosphere. When you encourage spiritual oneness amongst your followers, or team, it creates a sense of being one working together for the good of the entire body. Once you have created your vision statement the next step is to create your mission statement. Jesus mission statement was My food is to do the will of him who sent me and to finish his work. Noon 4:34) The word mission, as defined by Webster, means the work they are sent to do or an aim in life, arising from a conviction or sense of calling. Jesus knew and understood that God had given him a ask that needed to be carried out and fulfilled. It is very important as a leader to make sure your team knows and understands what you expect from them. Once your team has a clear picture of what you expect for them, stress the importance of staying focused on that goal until it has been accomplished. Did Jesus achieve the mission that God sent him to do? John 19:30 states When he had received the drink, Jesus said, It is finished. With that, he bowed his head and gave up his spirit. This passage would indicate that he did accomplish the mission that God sent him to do. Jesus was sent here to teach us about the glory of God, atonement, redemption and salvation. Jesus taught us with his vision statement that we should be one body or team. He taught us with his mission statement to set a goal and to stay focused on that goal until you have accomplished it. Jesus gave the ultimate sacrifice to his followers by dying for our sins. We, as Christian leaders, are not expected to die for our team, but we are required to make sacrifices in order for our team to be a success. Evangelism is the Christian practice of spreading the Gospel of Jesus to non- Christians. The purpose of evangelism is to convert people to Christianity. This is the Great Commission that was given to us by the resurrected Jesus and is the basis for Christian Missionary works. Has this Great Commission been fulfilled? To answer this question, lets take a look at the strongest and weakest evangelical Christian countries in the world. While only about two percent of Asia is Christian, South Korea, has witnessed the most widespread growth of Christianity over the past three decades of the countrys modernization. Although Buddhism is the largest religion in this country, Christianity s following a close second. The two most predominant Christian religions in this country are Catholicism, with approximately three million followers, and Protestant with approximately 11 million followers. This results in about one third, or 45 million people, of the population being Christians. South Korea is also known as the Republic of Korea. The map below shows you where this country is located. [pick] Africa is the second continent where Christianity boomed. Christianity began in Attract Walt n ten Haling Into Egypt when Jesus was Just an Intact. Constantly most widely practiced religion in sub-Sahara Africa. In the year 1900 there were approximately nine million Christians but by the year 2000 that number had grown to reach 380 million. The largest percentage of Christians reside in Central Africa with about 63. 9% of the population practicing Christian beliefs. East Africa houses the second largest percentage of about 59. 94 % practicing Christians. There are still some areas of Africa where they practice traditional, tribal religions as well as the Moslem religion but Christianity is becoming more widely practiced and accepted. The weakest evangelical countries in the world are in Europe. France is said to be en of the most challenging places to evangelize since the majority of their population is Muslim. According to a study done by Foursquare Missions International, New age buoyant and astrologists out number clergy by 4 to 1. France is said to be one of the most Marxist, secular, violent and hedonistic countries that teaches their people to focus on me. Combine these practices with their loose sexual behavior and their multiculturalism, which is even more extreme than that in the United States, it is no wonder that there is such a need for this country to hear the word of God. So what category does the United States fall in to? Strong or weak? The Southern part of the U. S. Contains the most Evangelical Christians in the states.

Frigate USS Chesapeake in the War of 1812

Frigate USS Chesapeake in the War of 1812 USS Chesapeake was one of the original six frigates constructed for the U.S. Navy. Entering service in 1800, the ship carried 38 guns and saw service during the with Quasi-War with France and the campaign against the Barbary pirates. In 1807, Chesapeake was attacked by HMS Leopard (50 guns) over the practice of impressment of sailors in what became known as the Chesapeake-Leopard Affair. Active in the War of 1812, Chesapeake was defeated and captured by HMS Shannon (38) on June 1, 1813. The ship served as HMS Chesapeake until 1819. Background With the United States separation from Great Britain after the American Revolution, the American merchant marine no longer enjoyed the security provided by the Royal Navy when at sea. As a result, its ships made easy targets for pirates and other raiders such as the Barbary corsairs. Aware that a permanent navy would need to be created, Secretary of War Henry Knox requested American shipbuilders submit plans for six frigates in late 1792. Worried about cost, debate raged in Congress for over a year until funding was finally obtained through the Naval Act of 1794. Calling for the building of four 44-gun and two 36-gun frigates, the act was put into effect and construction assigned to various cities. The designs selected by Knox were those of renowned naval architect Joshua Humphreys. Aware that the United States could not hope to build a navy of equal strength to Britain or France, Humphreys created large frigates that could best any similar vessel, but were fast enough to escape enemy ships-of-the-line. The resulting vessels were long, with wider than usual beams and possessed diagonal riders in their framing to increase strength and prevent hogging. Construction Originally intended to be a 44-gun frigate, Chesapeake was laid down at Gosport, VA in December 1795. Construction was overseen by Josiah Fox and superintended by Flamborough Head veteran Captain Richard Dale. Progress on the frigate was slow and in early 1796 construction was halted when a peace accord was reached with Algiers. For the next two years, Chesapeake remained on the blocks at Gosport. With the beginning of the Quasi-War with France in 1798, Congress authorized work to resume. Returning to work, Fox found that a shortage of timber existed as much of Gosports supply had been shipped to Baltimore for the completion of USS Constellation (38). Aware of Secretary of the Navy Benjamin Stodderts desire to have the vessel completed quickly and never a supporter of Humphreys design, Fox radically redesigned the ship. The result was a frigate that was the smallest of the original six. USS Chesapeake. US Navy As Foxs new plans reduced the overall cost of the vessel, they were approved by Stoddert on August 17, 1798. The new plans for Chesapeake saw the frigates armament reduced from 44 guns to 36. Considered an oddity due to its differences relative to its sisters, Chesapeake was deemed an unfortunate ship by many. Launched on December 2, 1799, an additional six months were required to complete it. Commissioned on May 22, 1800, with Captain Samuel Barron in command, Chesapeake put to sea and transported currency from Charleston, SC to Philadelphia, PA. USS Chesapeake (1799) OverviewNation: United StatesBuilder: Gosport Navy YardAuthorized: March 27, 1794Launched: December 2, 1799Commissioned: May 22, 1800Fate: Captured by HMS Shannon, June 1, 1813SpecificationsShip Type: FrigateDisplacement: 1,244 tonsLength: 152.6 ft.Beam: 41.3 ft.Draft: 20 ft.Complement: 340Armament (War of 1812)29 x 18 pdr18 x 32 pdr2 x 12 pdr1 x 12 pdr carronade Early Service After serving with an American squadron off the southern coast and in the Caribbean, Chesapeake captured its first prize, the French privateer La Jeune Creole (16), on January 1, 1801, after a 50-hour chase. With the end of the conflict with France, Chesapeake was decommissioned on February 26 and placed in ordinary. This reserve status proved brief as a resumption of hostilities with the Barbary States led to the frigate being reactivated in early 1802. Made the flagship of an American squadron, led by Commodore Richard Morris, Chesapeake sailed for the Mediterranean in April and arrived at Gibraltar on May 25. Remaining abroad until early April 1803, the frigate took part in American operations against the Barbary pirates but was plagued by issues such as a rotted mast and bowsprit. Chesapeake-Leopard Affair Laid up at the Washington Navy Yard in June 1803, Chesapeake remained idle for nearly four years. In January 1807, Master Commandant Charles Gordon was tasked with preparing the frigate for use as Commodore James Barrons flagship in the Mediterranean. As work progressed on Chesapeake, Lieutenant Arthur Sinclair was sent ashore to recruit a crew. Among those who signed on were three sailors who had deserted from HMS Melampus (36). Though alerted to the status of these men by the British ambassador, Barron refused to return them as they had been forcibly impressed into the Royal Navy. Dropping down to Norfolk in June, Barron began provisioning Chesapeake for its voyage. On June 22, Barron departed Norfolk. Loaded with supplies, Chesapeake was not in fighting trim as the new crew was still stowing equipment and preparing the vessel for active operations. Leaving port, Chesapeake passed a British squadron which was blockading two French ships at Norfolk. HMS Leopard fires on USS Chesapeake. US Naval History and Heritage Command A few hours later, the American frigate was chased down by HMS Leopard (50), commanded by Captain Salusbury Humphreys. Hailing Barron, Humphreys requested Chesapeake carry dispatches to Britain. A normal request, Barron agreed and one of Leopards lieutenants rowed across to the American ship. Coming aboard, he presented Barron with orders from Vice Admiral George Berkeley which stated he was to search Chesapeake for deserters. Barron promptly refused this request and the lieutenant departed. A short time later, Leopard hailed Chesapeake. Barron was unable to understand Humphreys message and moments later Leopard fired a shot across Chesapeakes bow before delivering a full broadside into the frigate. Barron ordered the ship to general quarters, but the cluttered nature of the decks made this difficult. As Chesapeake struggled to prepare for battle, the larger Leopard continued to pound the American ship. After enduring fifteen minutes of British fire, during which Chesapeake responded with only one shot, Barron struck his colors. Coming aboard, the British removed four sailors from Chesapeake before departing. In the incident, three Americans were killed and eighteen, including Barron, were wounded. Badly battered, Chesapeake limped back to Norfolk. For his part in the affair, Barron was court-martialed and suspended from the US Navy for five years. A national humiliation, the Chesapeake-Leopard Affair led to a diplomatic crisis and President Thomas Jefferson banned all British warships from American ports. The affair also led to the Embargo Act of 1807 which devastated the American economy. War of 1812 Repaired, Chesapeake later saw patrol duty enforcing the embargo with Captain Stephen Decatur in command. With the beginning of the War of 1812, the frigate was fitting out at Boston in preparation to sail as part of squadron consisting of USS United States (44) and USS Argus (18). Delayed, Chesapeake remained behind when the other ships sailed and did not leave port until mid-December. Commanded by Captain Samuel Evans, the frigate conducted a sweep of the Atlantic and captured six prizes before arriving back at Boston on April 9, 1813. In poor health, Evans left the ship the following month and was replaced by Captain James Lawrence. Captain James Lawrence, USN. US Naval History and Heritage Command Battle with HMS Shannon Taking command, Lawrence found the ship in poor condition and the crews morale low as enlistments were expiring and their prize money was tied up in court. Working to appease the remaining sailors, he also began recruiting to fill out the crew. As Lawrence worked to ready his ship, HMS Shannon (38), commanded by Captain Philip Broke, began blockading Boston. In command of the frigate since 1806, Broke had built Shannon into a crack ship with an elite crew. On May 31, after learning that Shannon had moved closer to the harbor, Lawrence decided to sail out and battle the British frigate. Putting to sea the next day, Chesapeake, now mounting 50 guns, emerged from the harbor. This corresponded to a challenge sent by Broke that morning, though Lawrence never received the letter. Though Chesapeake possessed a larger armament, Lawrences crew was green and many had yet to train on the ships guns. HMS Shannon leads the captured USS Chesapeake into Halifx harbor, June 1813. Library and Archives Canada (Public Domain) Flying a large banner proclaiming Free Trade and Sailors Rights, Chesapeake met the enemy around 5:30 p.m. approximately twenty miles east of Boston. Nearing, the two ships exchanged broadsides and soon after became entangled. As Shannons guns began sweeping Chesapeakes decks, both captains gave the order to board. Shortly after issuing this order, Lawrence was mortally wounded. His loss and Chesapeakes bugler failing to sound the call led the Americans to hesitate. Surging aboard, the Shannons sailors succeeded in overwhelming Chesapeakes crew after bitter fighting. In the battle, Chesapeake lost 48 killed and 99 wounded while Shannon suffered 23 killed and 56 wounded. Repaired at Halifax, the captured ship served in the Royal Navy as HMS Chesapeake until 1815. Sold four years later, many of its timbers were used in the Chesapeake Mill in Wickham, England.

Job Design and Description Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Job Design and Description - Essay Example Job description and design are tools that are used in structuring an organization. In an organization, the first stride to acquiring the appropriate person with the required skills into the right position is to get the job right. In reference to Lussier, a good description and design of job supports a manager to effectively run the organization (242). Job description arises from job design. An organization’s management should clearly state the job description and design before embarking on recruitment. Each job should have various requirements or essentials. These inherent requirements are the responsibilities and chores that should be undertaken to get the job done. These requirements stipulate achievement of the result rather than how to achieve them. For instance, an employee is obliged to take minutes in meetings. In this case, it is essential for all employees to take minutes of all the meetings within the organization. Needless to say, it is also necessary to understand that not all the tasks in a job description are integral prerequisites. For instance, though making coffee is not an essential receptionist’s task, he or she may be required to make some coffee for guests. It almost goes without saying that the job design and description is the foundation for getting the best and brightest employees. Job Design The ability of an organization to succeed in its goals depends on how well it can identify the various activities that must occur and the quality of the individuals selected to perform them. It is the responsibility of the management to ensure that both activities and personnel are appropriate. By carefully analyzing the purpose, responsibilities and qualifications of each job, the selection process can be made more efficient and fruitful (Lussier 242). Lussier defines job design as â€Å"the process of laying out job responsibilities and duties and describing how they are to be performed† (242). Designing a job requires answeri ng such questions as â€Å"what activities are necessary to accomplish organizational goals?† Answering this simple question is apparently more complex than one might expect. It requires detailed information in order to be useful. The goal is to be as comprehensive as possible in listing the tasks. Being too brief or too broad creates more work later in the process (Lussier 243). For example, a task for a circulation service point position should be more than â€Å"check out materials.† Job design should consider organizational requirements, individual worker attributes, health, and safety. Job design is a broad concept that not only involves human relations but also job satisfaction, motivation and interpersonal issues. Organizations can best achieve their objectives by designing work that motivates workers to attain their full capability (Lussier 243). A deep understanding of job design requires an understanding of behavioral science, organizational behavior, psychol ogy, human resources management, economics, and operations management. The process by which jobs are designed includes three sub processes: job analysis, job description and job segmentation. These subprocesses are related and their relationship is very essential in job description. Long before recruiting and selecting employees begin, the organization needs to carry out an analysis (Lussier 243). This analysis consist of â€Å"observing and studying a job to determine its proper

The Financial Cooperation of Seoul-Beijing-Tokyo Triangle after 2008 Essay

The Financial Cooperation of Seoul-Beijing-Tokyo Triangle after 2008 Financial Crisis - Essay Example Prompted by a domino effect, the crisis eventually led to damaging consequences for the labor market and initiated a subsequent disintegration of the banking system. This severe decline in economic progress was experienced on a global scale and spanned across North America to Asia. According to Plummer, the premise of regional cooperation amongst Asian economies as a result of the global financial crisis is primarily associated with the factor of competitiveness in order to enhance the opportunity to achieve integration within the global economy and combat the effect of external forces (32). The assessment of this concept entails examining how each of the economic motivators for increasing cooperation has been impacted by the global financial crisis and how the extent of this regional cooperation can be promoted owing to the influence of external factors and the changing economic scenario. Movements and frameworks to advance the potential of regional financial cooperation amongst Asian nations namely Japan, China and Korea have been characterized by the emergence of specific challenges which must be resolved in order to attain the desired objectives of trilateral economic agreements. However, Madhur asserts that launching any potential financial and economic cooperation agreement between these Asian economies has traditionally posed several challenges and hurdles which have even led certain bilateral agreements and FTAs including the CJK FTA in failing to materialize successfully (377). The key difficulty in advancing the scope of financial cooperation between the three nations is linked with the inherent concept of preferential trade agreements and the criticism which is raised by trade analysts regarding such type of agreements. As noted by Madhur, a comparison of PTAs with the value and worth of potential multilateral free trade suggests that the former does not ho ld the several benefits

Food and Beverage Essay Example for Free

Food and Beverage Essay * Food and Beverage service is the food and beverage flow (from the purchasing of the foods to service to the customer) mainly concerned with the delivery and presentation of the food to customer, after completion of the food production. * Sometimes, it involves transportation if there is a separation of production and service facilities. Beverage * French bevrage, from boivre (to drink), from Latin bibo . * It is also said to be derived from the Latin word ‘Bever’ meaning rest or repose from the work. * The term beverage refers to all kinds of potable drinks which have thirst quenching, refreshing, stimulating, and nourishing properties. * Any potable( drinkable) liquid can be termed as beverage which regulates the stomach system and balances the pH level. * Beverages are consumed mainly to quench thirst , compensate loss of body fluid due to perspiration, feel fresh and active, as rituals, during social gatherings, and during and after eating. * Broadly beverage can be classified into two ways; 1. Alcoholic Beverage 2. Non- Alcoholic Beverage What is Alcoholic Beverage? * Alcohol is a colorless, odorless and volatile liquid. * It is a potable liquid containing ethyl alcohol or ethanol(C2H5OH) of 0. 5 per cent more by volume. * The percentage of alcohol in a drink varies from 0. 5 to 95 per cent , depending upon the method of preparation. * Alcohol is obtained by fermenting a liquid containing sugar. * The word alcohol came from the Arabic word ‘ al-kohl’ which referred to any fine powder that was applied to essences obtained by distillation by the alchemists of medieval Europe. Fermentation is the process in which a liquid containing sugar is acted upon by yeast which converts the sugar into alcohol and gives off carbon dioxide. * E. g. Grape juice- Wine * Apple Juice- Cider * Pear Juice- Perry. * Distillation is the process of separating elements in a liquid by vaporization and condensation. * During the distillation process of alcoholic beverages, the alcohol which is present in the fermented liquid(alcoholic wash) is separated from water. * Spirits are the examples of distilled drinks and the plants producing the spirits are known as distilleries. * The following wash are responsible for particular spirits which are as following: * Brandy- fermented grape juice * Gin, Whisky- fermented cereals * Tequila- fermented sap of Agave Tequilana weber * Rum- fermented molasses * Vodka- fermented potatoes or cereal.

Fire with Fire by Naomi Wolf :: Feminism

Naomi Wolf, author of Fire with Fire, is one of the most well known women in modern feminism. In her commencement speech to Scripps College in 1992, she strongly expresses the unfair treatment of women in today’s society. By focusing on survival and weakness, Wolf relays ways to prevent and eliminate discrimination. She conveys her beliefs by expressing important facts about the way women were treated in past history and the way women should be treated today. Along with this, she expresses that women should stand their own ground and that it is their responsibility to determine their status in today’s society. She compares women and men to demonstrate how society differentiates between the two. Wolf speaks of four areas in which she feels women are discriminated in the most. First, she discusses the differences in how society determines how one becomes an adult. She said that boys become men just by taking on responsibility, and for most men, this could happen at an early age. But for women, society requires that they must first finish school before they are considered adults. This is an example of how society places men above women by allowing men to be seen as adults and have adult privileges. Next, she discusses the fact that men earn more money than women in the workplace. She said, "Women make 68 cents for every male dollar. . . (Wolf, p. 2)." This is another example of how society favors men. Wolf then discusses how men often act superior to women simply for the fact that they are treated better by society. Men have traditionally been the primary breadwinners and have taken care of the family, and, for this, men feel that they can look down on women. Finally, Wolf speaks of the fact that women are expected to keep quite when a problem occurs and not speak up for what they believe in. She says, "We are told that the worst thing we can do is cause conflict, even in the service of doing right" (Wolf, p. 2). Once again society favors men by allowing them to speak up for their rights, but looks down upon women for doing the same thing. Wolf feels that these four areas are what contribute to the weakness of a woman in today’s society. Fire with Fire by Naomi Wolf :: Feminism Naomi Wolf, author of Fire with Fire, is one of the most well known women in modern feminism. In her commencement speech to Scripps College in 1992, she strongly expresses the unfair treatment of women in today’s society. By focusing on survival and weakness, Wolf relays ways to prevent and eliminate discrimination. She conveys her beliefs by expressing important facts about the way women were treated in past history and the way women should be treated today. Along with this, she expresses that women should stand their own ground and that it is their responsibility to determine their status in today’s society. She compares women and men to demonstrate how society differentiates between the two. Wolf speaks of four areas in which she feels women are discriminated in the most. First, she discusses the differences in how society determines how one becomes an adult. She said that boys become men just by taking on responsibility, and for most men, this could happen at an early age. But for women, society requires that they must first finish school before they are considered adults. This is an example of how society places men above women by allowing men to be seen as adults and have adult privileges. Next, she discusses the fact that men earn more money than women in the workplace. She said, "Women make 68 cents for every male dollar. . . (Wolf, p. 2)." This is another example of how society favors men. Wolf then discusses how men often act superior to women simply for the fact that they are treated better by society. Men have traditionally been the primary breadwinners and have taken care of the family, and, for this, men feel that they can look down on women. Finally, Wolf speaks of the fact that women are expected to keep quite when a problem occurs and not speak up for what they believe in. She says, "We are told that the worst thing we can do is cause conflict, even in the service of doing right" (Wolf, p. 2). Once again society favors men by allowing them to speak up for their rights, but looks down upon women for doing the same thing. Wolf feels that these four areas are what contribute to the weakness of a woman in today’s society.

Political Economy of Journalism Essay

The ‘political economy of journalism’ is based on Marx’s critique of capitalism. With this in mind assess the following:‘†¦ professionals and amateurs can form powerful partnerships to create important journalism’ (Jones & Salter 2002: 29) The term â€Å"political economy† originally denoted the study of the conditions under which economic production was organised in the capitalist system. In Marxism, political economy studies the means of production specifically of capital, and how that manifests as economic activity (Marx, 1867). It’s simple, political economy derives many of its analytical insights from the Marxist analysis of capitalism as a â€Å"model of production†, defined in the first instance by the relationship between the â€Å"forces of production†, or the technologies and techniques through which material and symbolic goods and services are produced, and the â€Å"social relations of production†, or the relations between social agents (such as owners, editors and journalists in this case) through which the production of such goods and services are organised, and the associated modes of distribution of the economic product. This coupling of the forces and social relations of production provides the base from which other social processes, and the overall social structure of a historically specific mode of production, are organised. In the political economy of journalism, capitalism is identified as a mode of production characterised by ‘unprecedented dynamism, continuously revolutionizing its productive processes with new technologies and new forms of organising the labour process’ (Mosco 1995: 43). Karl Marx described in Capital this relationship between the economic base and the social structure in these terms: In the social production of their life men, enter into definite relations that are indispensable and independent of their will, relations of production that will correspond to a definite stage of development of their material productive forces. The sum total of these relations of production constitutes the economic structure, the real basis on which rises a legal and political superstructure and to which correspond definite forms of social consciousness. The mode of production of material life conditions the general process of social, political and intellectual life (Marx 1867). In his three volume work â€Å"The Information Age: Economy, Society and Culture†, the sociologist Manuel Castells has proposed that since the 1980s a new  economy has emerged that is global, networked and informational. While this new techno-economic framework remains capitalist in form, it is based upon what Castells describes as an informational rather than an industrial mode of development, which he defines in these terms: In the industrial mode of development, the main source of productivity lies in the introductions of new energy sources, and in the ability to decentralize the use of energy through the production and circulation processes. In the new, informational mode of development, the source of productivity lies in the technology of knowledge generation, information processing, and symbol communication †¦ What is specific to the informational mode of development is the action of knowledge upon knowledge itself as the main source of productivity. I call this m ode of development informational, constituted by the emergence of a new technological paradigm based on information technology (Castells 1996: 17). Castells has proposed that the rise of a network society has its origins in some central elements derivatives of the new regime of accumulation, or the nexus between production and consumption, identified by Castells as the â€Å"information technology paradigm†, which is based upon the mass diffusion of information and communication technologies. The new economy is networked and it is based upon information networks such as the Internet, as well as the networked enterprise becoming the dominant form of economic organisation, at whose heart is no longer the capitalist firm, but global markets and business projects based upon short-term strategic alliances and partnerships. For Castells, the networked enterprise is a logical corollary of electronic business, as it is based around ‘the Internet-based, interactive, networked connection between producers, consumers, and service providers’ (Castells 2001: 75). It has never been so easy to create information, and at the same time it has never been so difficult to make a living off its practice; the market is bigger than ever, but the income is the lowest in history, in relative terms. This trend is clearly visible in the USA, so many times forerunner about what is going to happen with the rest of the western countries. The scene is quite disturbing, at least in the USA, where major newspapers have seen how their diffusion has fallen from 62 million copies to 49 million since the Internet became mainstream with an easy access for most of the citizens of that country 15 years ago. Around a hundred newspapers were forced to stop  printing in paper format. During the same period, the number of readers of digital journalism has increased from nought to 75 million. The decrease in advertisements, which represents the main income in paper journalism, has reduced the profit drastically, which subsequently has brought massive lay-offs as read in s ome of the mastheads of the main European newspapers (1). El Pais, reference Spanish newspaper, fired more than 30 per cent of its staff after announcing a dismissal program. The company notified 129 of its workers that they were fired via e-mail the past 10th of November, while many of them were at their positions. The reason of the redundancy was the mismanagement of Juan Luis Cebrià ¡n, CEO of El Paà ­s, according to Maruja Torres, journalist of that newspaper, in a lecture at University of Barcelona: â€Å"Cebrià ¡n lost 5 billion euro gambling in casino capitalism, buying radios in Miami and Latin-American TVs that were absolutely worthless. He wanted to be a financial shark in Wall Street, but he actually was a little sardine who made everything wrong. He wasted the profits of our work in the adventure of the best newspaper of the Spanish democracy† (2). In the last years and due to the systemic crisis experienced by this sector, the main newspapers have faced many problems and several of them have been forced to move totally their paper editions to only On-line editions, like Pà ºblico, another Spanish newspaper, that stopped printing its paper edition a little longer than eight months ago, because of the decrease in its sales. (3) Newspapers financially survive in two ways, one is the income generated from advertisings and the other is from subscriptions. Advertising is at the centre of the debate, because, among other things, is the main source of funding and therefore for the survival of traditional newspapers. As noted in The Economist in its special report called â€Å"Bulletins from the future† (4), the bulk of the revenues had descended while at the same time the income of On-line media grew enormously. It is not only that the model of business has changed but also the model of consumption has changed. The Internet has brought an unprecedented revolution in the way we create, handle and spread information. It has demolished the old methods and has opened unlimited possibilities for the elaboration of a top-quality product with information. Brian Winston (1986, 1998), argues that, in contrast to claims that we are currently in the midst of an ‘information revolution’, the historical development of technologies such as telephone, radio, TV,  satellites, computers and Internet are marked far more by continuities rather than epochal transformations. Winston also argues that, insofar as technologies may still contain potential to challenge the dominant pattern of social relations. That it’s what we are seeing in the actual performing of relationship between citizens and journalism, where citizens are acting as journalists contributing content that is published on traditional media. This form of citizen journalism includes things like publication of photographs or video taken by amateurs who happened to be at the right place at the right time, such as the London bombings in July 2005 or London Riots in 2011. It could also include comment and opinion by a blogger that later appears on a mainstream media news site. Most of the time these people are not paid for their contribution. Citizen Journalism in this context is nearly always contextualized, edited and proofread by professional journalists (Quin & Lamble 2008). The website OhmyNews is one of the pioneers of citizen journalism, having more than 50.000 citizen reporters as of March 2007. Jean Min of OhmyNews International said every story went through an extensive screening and copyediting process before it was published. Although sometimes good quality blog content appears in mainstream media. The key word is quality. UK journalist Jemima Kiss concedes that the â€Å"cream† of bloggers will be experts in their field. â€Å"Blogs are often an extension of people’s job or their passions† (5). It is logical that traditional media should seek out their skills, but traditional gatekeepers have important skills that should not be underestimated. Min of OhmyNews concurs: â€Å"We believe bloggers can work better with professional assistance from trained journalists. On the other hand, we also believe professional journalists can expand their view and scope greatly with fresh input from citizen reporters. News media as a whole can offer more diverse and rich content to readers by tapping into the wealth of Netizens’ collective wisdom† (Quin & Lamble 2008). However, citizen journalism assume the role of journalists and that necessitates a debate about who is a journalist. Citizen Journalism sites succeed because they are easy and cheap to set up. Salaries are often not an issue because people volunteer their time. This means these bloggers or citizen reporters don’t want to be journalists, they just want to be heard and respected. (Min 2007) The first form of citizen journalism is likely to continue because traditional media  need quality content, and in many cases they are not paying for it. The second form requires energy and passion to sustain itself, and a form of revenue or business model. Arash Amel, a senior analyst for the media analysis company Screen Digest, said â€Å"The business model for user-generated sites has been ‘build it and sell it and let someone else worry about the business model’.† News Corp admitted early in 2007 that its Fox movie studio and television content would be more important than home made clips for capturing online video advertising. Screen Digest expects this market to expand for billions before 2012 (Edgecliffe-Johnson and van Duyn 2007). Bowman and Willis see collaboration as the driving force behind the â€Å"explosion of citizen media† as passionate and motivated people produce new forms of media. â€Å"The democratization of media has levelled the competitive landscape and forced dramatic changes in the news business (Bowman and Willis 2005: 7). They reject the notion that citizen journalism means the ends of the new media companies or journalism. However, in the last few years, the journalism has been through a lot of troubles because of Internet, but also thanks to the Network and how was changed the pattern of consume information, a lot of possibilities has been disclosed. One of them is â€Å"crowdsourcing†. Jeff Howe (2006) was the first person who has coined its definition, he describes crowdsourcing as a process that distribute problem-solving and production model. In the classic use of the term, problems are broadcast to an unknown group of solvers in the form of an open call for solutions. Users—also known as the crowd—submit solutions. Solutions are then owned by the entity that broadcast the problem in the first place—the crowdsourcer. The contributor of the solution is, in some cases, compensated either monetarily, with prizes, or with recognition. In other cases, the only rewards may be kudos or intellectual satisfaction. Crowdsourcing may produce solutions from amateurs or volunteers working in their spare time, or from experts or small businesses which were unknown to the initiating organization (Howe 2006). Concluding remarks: the global production of information and mass media is not built over the grounds of objectivity and the quality of a truthful information, as they would make us believe. Journalism in this case is not any different from any other capitalist industry. The production of information follows the laws of political economy, that is to say, the maximization of profits and thanks to  that fact the media owners trade freely with information like any other commodity on the market that is at the service of the capitalist system. BIBLIOGRAPHY: AXFORD, HUGGINS 2001, New Media and Politics, Sage Publications, London. BENDER, DAVENPORT, DRAGER, FREDLER 2009, Reporting for the Media, Oxford University Press, Oxford. CASTELLS, Manuel 1996a, The Rise of the Network Society, vol. 1 of The Information Age: Economy, Society and Culture, Blackwell, Malden, Mass. – 2001. The Internet Galaxy: Reflections on Economy, Society and Culture, Oxford University Press, Oxford. COTTLE Simon 2003. News, Public Relations and Power, Sage Publications, London. FLEW, Terry 2002, New Media: an introduction, Oxford University Press, Oxford. JONES, SALTER 2012, Digital Journalism, Sage Publications, London. MARX, Karl 1867, Capital, Verlag von Otto Meissner, Hamburg. MOSCO, Vincent 1995, The Political Economy of Communication, Sage, Calif. QUINN, Stephen; LAMBLE, Stephen 2008, Online Newsgathering: Research and Reporting for Journalism, Focal Press, Elsevier, Burllington. SALWEN, GARRISON, DRISCOLL 2005, Online News and the Public, Lawrence WIN STON, Brian 1986, Misunderstanding Media, Routledge & Kegan Paul, London. Erlbaum Associates, Publishers, London. BOWMAN, WILLIS 2005, The Future is Here, But Do News Media Companies See It?, Nieman Reports. Available from: http://www.nieman.harvard.edu/reports/article/100558/The-Future-Is-Here-But-Do-News-Media-Companies-See-It.aspx [cited 2012] EDGECLIFFE, JOHNSON & VAN DUYN 2007, Murdoch is sight of Dow Jones. 21 June 2007. Available from: http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/cde8a968-2016-11dc-9eb1 000b5df10621.html#axzz2CPrMqwcR [cited 2012] HOWE, Jeff 2006, The Rise of Crowdsourcing , Wired Magazine. Available from: http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/14.06/crowds.html MIN, Jean 2007. Interview. 29 May 2007. Available from: http://laazotea.blogspot.co.uk/2007/05/entrevista-jean-k-mings-ohmynews.html [cited 2012] CARLING, John. El momento crucial. El Paà ­s. 10 May 2009. Available from: http://elpais.com/diario/2009/05/10/domingo/1241927553_850215.html [cited 2012] TORRES, Maruja. Pregunt es que els periodistes ens haurà ­em de fer cada

To What Extent Does Labelling Theory Offer a Useful Contribution to the Study of Crime and Deviance in Today’s Society

Labelling Theory To what extent does labelling theory offer a useful contribution to the study of crime and deviance in today’s society Introduction This assignment will Discuss labelling theory, it will attempt to explore the contributions made by labelling theorists, the criticism towards labelling theorists, and the discussion surrounding its reality as an actual theory. However the main focus will be proving an understanding of Howard Becker‘s Labelling Theory and will describe and evaluate Labelling Theory to the study of crime. In conclusion it will discuss how relevant labelling theory is today. According to (Wellford, 1975) Labelling Theory or The Social Reaction Theory as it is more often known has been around and has developed over time from as early as 1938. It became very popular during the late 1960’s and early 1970’s were it was seen as a new departure in theories of crime and deviance particularly in sociology. Edwin Lemert is widely recognized as the founder of what is called the Societal Reaction Theory. This is the forerunner to the Social Reaction or Labelling Theory which has present day acceptance and includes many of the same concepts. Currently, labelling theory suggests that when a person commits a crime, they receive the label of criminal. When a person is labelled criminal by society, they are likely to accept this label as a part of themselves and because the person now thinks of themselves as a criminal, they are now likely to continue in their criminal behaviour (Becker, 1963). This is still relevant to this day, e. g. f a male was to murder a female he will always be seen and known as a criminal. In order to understand labelling theory, familiarization is needed with Lemert’s Societal Reaction Theory. This theory explores the journey to social deviance in two stages; primary deviance and secondary deviance. Howard Becker is widely associated with the labelling theory through his volume Outsiders: Studies in the Sociology of Deviance. He also developed the term â⠂¬Å"moral entrepreneur† to describe persons in power who campaign to have certain deviant behaviour outlawed. He asserts that many of the laws that have been passed have been solely for this purpose, and that behaviour which is defined as criminal is dynamic and changes throughout time and that therefore, the actual criminal behaviour is irrelevant to the theory. (Becker, 1963). Becker himself has stated however, that the concept of his work is not a theory, with all the achievements and obligations that go with the title, or focused solely on the act of labelling as some have thought. It is not a single concept, being instead a number of assorted ideas that have been brought together under one approach, although critics have called the work ambiguous, inconsistent and at best a vague perspective Becker, never sought to provide an all-embracing, etiological explanation of deviance Becker himself prefers the term ‘Interactionist Theory of Deviance' developing the study of deviance from a distinctly social perspective, considering the processes by which particular types of act or people, come to be labelled as deviant. He has been influenced by works such as Cooley's ‘looking-glass self' , Lemert's ideas of social constructionism , and Mead's theories on the internalisation of the self, Becker makes two arguments: 1. Deviant behaviour must be conceptualized in terms of a sequential model since different causes operate at different stages, 2. Rules and enforcement processes must be viewed as developing through time rather than as an isolated moment of disapproval. Definition of Labelling Theory Also known as Social Reaction Theory, this is a theory originated by Edwin Lemert and then developed by sociologist Howard Becker. It is a social theory concerned with how people perceive themselves as delinquent or criminal due to the labels, which categorized and describe certain behaviours, that are applied to them by criminal justice authorities and by others in society. The theory maintains that the labels people are given affect their own and others perceptions of them, and how the behaviour of an individual is influenced or even created by the use of certain labels (i. e. , thief, prostitute, homosexual). The resulting treatment of the individual then pushes them into performing the deviant role or back into conformity. The theory also maintains that the deviance itself is characterized by societies reaction to any alleged violation of the rules or the expectations of what are considered normal conduct. Primary Deviance Primary deviance begins with an initial criminal act. As stated by Lemart it is a rule-breaking behaviour that is carried out by people who see themselves and are indeed seen by others as basically conformist by nature. Following this act of deviance the person may be labelled as deviant or criminal by their peers and society, yet they themselves do not yet accept this label. That is to say that they do not think of themselves in terms as being a criminal. It is this lack of acceptance to see themselves as criminal which differentiates primary from secondary deviance. This person shall remain in a state of primary deviance for as long as they are capable of rationalizing and able to deal with this label by justifying the act as a socially acceptable role (Lemert, 1951). When leading on to Secondary Deviance, the criminal label is placed on an individual during what is known as a Degradation Ceremony in which the accused person is formally or officially labelled as a criminal. This would normally take place during court sentencing, but may also come about in more subtle fashions as well. For example the relatives of a person become withdrawn and distance themselves from that person when they find out they have committed a crime, regardless of whether or not they face any formal charges (Wellford, 1975). An example of this would be an exotic dancer: In today’s society an exotic dancer is a perfect example. Others may label the dancer’s act as deviant while the dancer themselves may see it as a perfectly legitimate profession as with any other occupation which enables them to earn an income. Secondary Deviance According to Lemart secondary deviance occurs when there is an acceptance by the individual of the deviant behaviour and the criminal label, it unabsorbed into their self image, they therefore see themselves from that point in time as a criminal or deviant. This then becomes a mechanism for defence, attack, or adaptation to the problems of the individual caused by society’s reaction to their primary deviation (Lemert, 1951). is only considered to have occurred when the labelled person can no longer deny the label having undergone a degradation ceremony which labels the person eviant, be this through a personal audience such as family or friends, or a more formal one such as in a court of law, both the individual and society both now accept the view that the offender is a criminal. Once they finally accept this label as a part of themselves they will act ,from this point onward, in a way befitting this new criminal label. Secondary deviances is considered to have occurred when both society and the individual share the view that the offender is a criminal. Deviant Career and Master Status Becker's theory pays particular attention to the way in which society reacts to people with criminal labels. He suggests that this label becomes the person's Master Status, meaning that it is a constant label, that affects and over-rides how others in society will view them. The status that people will use to identify and classify the person will always be that of criminal. Any other statuses a person may have had are no longer heeded nor valid in the eyes of society. A person could be a parent, employee, spouse, etc. , but the first and major status that will come to mind to other people and themselves is that of the criminal (Becker, 1963). On occasion the person's criminal master status may compel them to conform more closely to society's accepted norms. This is an attempt to show to others that the person may have made mistakes in life, but such mistakes will not happen again. From this time onwards they will act in a fashion that is deemed Normal (Foster & Dinitz & Reckless, 1972). It is believed however, that in most cases where the master status is that of a criminal, secondary deviance will be completed rather than being resisted. An identity change will take place in whereby the person will now accept the label of criminal. With this new criminal identity is in place, there is subsequent pressure for the individual to behave accordingly. Such an identity change may be signalled by a person losing contact with their former friends (conformist) and starting up associations with other criminal labelled deviants (Becker, 1963). In this new peer group of similarly minded deviants there increases the likelihood of the person not only continuing but also possibly escalating the rate and seriousness of their criminal behavior. Negative Labelling There are a number of powerful individuals within society (politicians, judges, police officers, medical doctors) who can impose some of the most significant labels. The labelled person may be a drug addict, an alcoholic, a criminal, a delinquents or a prostitute to name but a few. The consequences of being labelled a deviant can be far-reaching. Social research indicates that those who have negative labels applied to them usually have a lower self-image of themselves, that they are more likely to reject themselves, and that they may even act even more deviantly as a result of the label. The research also shows that it is unfortunate that people who accept the labelling of others, whether it is correct or incorrect, have a difficult time changing their opinions of the labelled person, even in light of evidence to the contrary. In a small study of child behavior after punishment, it was found that if the audience held the offender in a positive regard, the offender was likely to rise to these expectations and act in a manner befitting a â€Å"good boy† (Wellford, 1975). In this way it is possible to use labelling theory in a more productive manner. The implications of the study results suggest that two things can be done in order to help prevent labelling theory from having negative effects on people who've broken the law. First of all if the court atmosphere could be avoided in situations where the crime were minor offenses or misdemeanors its possible that the offender would be able to avoid formal sentencing and the degradation ceremony that goes with it. In such cases rehabilitative therapy and out-of-court settlements would be preferable. The other possibility is that a formal ceremony which would cancel the stigma associated with the degradation ceremony could be held. Perhaps a court declaration or letter that the offender is hereby rehabilitated could be used after the offender has served their punishment (Broadhead, 1974). Criticisms of Labelling Theory There have been many criticisms on labelling theorists, Becker states that how interactionist theories have been accused of giving aid and comfort to the enemy. From a logical standpoint there are flaws within the main points of Labelling Theory. At the outset the theory states that â€Å"No acts are inherently criminal† (Wellford, 1975). This implies that acts are only â€Å"criminal† when society regards them as being â€Å"criminalâ€Å". The implications of this as stated by Howard Becker are that â€Å"criminal law is dynamic and ever-changing, differing from society to societyâ€Å". If this holds true then why are certain acts illegal and labelled as criminal in the majority of the civilized world? Murder, rape, arson, armed robbery to mention a few are all considered to be crimes in any society or country one would could care to name. The theory also claims that for a criminal to be successfully labelled as deviant that an audience needs to be present in order to provide a reaction to the crimes committed. If a murder is committed where the killer successfully avoids detection or raising anyone's suspicion, would that mean that the murder was not criminal and that the killer would not think of themselves as such? It may be probable that the murderer's own value system could initialize self-labelling, but the theory clearly states the labelling must come from a 3rd party (Hagan, 1973). There have been criticisms that the terms in labelling theory lack precision, and that there is no real account taken of the central social processes, such as how every day behaviour actually needs to have a societal reaction. The methodology generally is also seen as lacking clarity, and incorporating too many commonsense definitions and assumptions. It is felt that what is needed is a more detailed study in areas such as police procedures, or the categories deployed/applied by social workers and lawyers. in the case of police behaviour, For example, in police behaviour it is clear that much depends upon the appearance, image, or attitude of the potential suspect, and that very different treatments can be aportioned to suspects, depending on the collective and immediately formed social judgements of the police officer (Cicourel 1968). Labelling theory appears to over do the idea of a self-fulfilling prophecy or a deviant career, there is no real gathering of evidence for this, especially what makes a label effective and permanent, how it becomes a master identity. Examples of Research Conducted by Labelling Theorists William Chambliss in 1973 conducted a classic study into the effects of labelling. His two groups of white, male, high-school students were both frequently involved in delinquent acts of theft, vandalism, drinking, and truancy. The police never arrested the members of one group, which Chambliss abelled the â€Å"Saints,† but the police did have frequent run-ins with members of the other group, which he labelled the â€Å"Roughnecks. † The boys in the Saints came from respectable families, had good reputations and grades in school, and were careful not to get caught when breaking the law. By being polite, cordial, and apologetic whenever confronted by the police, the Saints escaped labell ing themselves as â€Å"deviants. † In contrast, the Roughnecks came from families of lower socioeconomic status, had poor reputations and grades in school, and were not careful about being caught when breaking the law. By being hostile and insolent whenever confronted by the police, the Roughnecks were easily labelled by others and themselves as â€Å"deviants. † In other words, while both groups committed crimes, the Saints were perceived to be â€Å"good† because of their polite behavior (which was attributed to their upper-class backgrounds) and the Roughnecks were seen as â€Å"bad† because of their insolent behavior (which was attributed to their lower-class backgrounds). As a result, the police always took action against the Roughnecks, but never against the Saints. Conclusion Becker, (1963) claims that laws are established for a reason, and behaviour that is defined as criminal is dynamic and will change within time. This shows that criminal behaviour is not relevant to the theory. However it is still to this day seen as debatable. However there is one known exception, many labelling theorists say the system is biased towards the lower class, which constitutes the overwhelming majority of arrests and convictions within the American criminal justice system (Wellford, 1975). Becker is the usual source of radical variants of labelling. His work implies there is no need to explain deviance in the first place, that it is in fact a very common social activity, a normal one, which only becomes abnormal when it is to so labelled. Labelling itself then becomes confirming, a self-fulfilling prophecy, launching people on a deviant career. Today, one rarely finds labelling theories like those which predominated in the late 1960s. Certainly there are still social constructivist accounts of some type of deviance or another, and studies about the meaning of crime to criminals and criminalizers are still done. A hift seems to have taken place around 1974 in which labelling theory accommodated itself to legalistic definitions, or at least a focus on state power. Modern labelling theories came to recognize that societies â€Å"create† crime by passing laws, and that the substantive nature of the law should be an object of study. Sometimes, these are called criminalization theories (Hartjen 1974), and they have some resembl ance to societal reaction approaches, but they more closely fall into a field that criminologists trained in sociology call the sociology of law perspective or the study of law as a mechanism of social control. Most modern labelling theorists have been influenced by a critique of the underdog focus which was provided by Liazos (1972) when he said that sociologists need to stop studying â€Å"nuts, sluts, and perverts. † The one aspect of this theory that could be regarded positively is that it is very easy to understand and can be quickly explained, breaking down all criminal behavior into primary and secondary deviance with a few simple statements for each. Bibliography Alexander Liazos (1982) People First: An introduction to Social Problems Allyn & Bacon pp121 Becker, H. S. (1963). Outsiders: Studies in the Sociology of Deviance. New York: The Free Press Joseph Rowntree foundation (2009) http://www. jrf. org. uk/ accessed 12/03/09 Lemert, E. M. (1951). Social Pathology. New York: MacGraw-Hill Book Co. , Inc. Wellford, C. (1975). Labelling Theory and Criminology: An Assessment. Social Problems, Vol. 22, No. 3, 332-345

Lierature and Art essays

Lierature and Art essays Literature and art have led a close and mutually influential relationship through the ages. Literary works have influenced a predominant majority of artists from the great to the lesser and common. Michelangelo is considered by many as the greatest artist of the Renaissance and one whom was also greatly influenced by various literature. He grew up during a period of Enlightenment, which encouraged learning and the development of new ideas. Classical philosophies of Plato and Aristotle were rediscovered and became influential in determining the direction of the philosophy of art. For example, Artistoles Poetics became the basis for writings on the visual arts and also literature, as well as giving rise to ideas about the purpose and creation of art and beauty. Aristotle stated that words and an image have certain similarities. Both imitate (and perfect) nature, and both do so through plot (word) or design (image), both employ narrative devices, and both tell many of the same stories. This idea was employed by Michelangelo who based his works predominately on stories and images from the Bible (his famous fresco of the Creation of Adam for example). Due in part to the fact that a large portion of his work was commissioned by the Church, as well as the popularity of pictures based on the Christian tradition that pervaded the period. The philosophy of art in the Renaissance was based upon certain essential texts such as Leon Battista Albertis Trilogy On Painting, On Sculpture and On Architecture, Marilio Ficinos Commentary on Platos Symposium, Leonardos Treatise and Gerogio Vasars Lives. Michelangelo was influenced by the ideas that surfaced through these works, especially that of Alberti, and followed both him and Leonardo in determining perspective and anatomy. In his...

Biocon

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Benefits of Integrated Transportation Research Paper

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